The History and Development of Speech Act Theory: From Austin to Searle

Communication is a fundamental aspect of human interaction and the ability to understand and interpret speech is crucial in our day-to-day lives. However, the meaning of speech is not always explicitly stated in the words being spoken. This has led to the development of speech act theory, a branch of linguistics that studies the ways in which words can be used to perform acts and express meanings beyond their literal definitions. Speech act theory has undergone significant development over the years, starting with the works of J.L. Austin and continuing with the contributions of John Searle. In this article, we will explore the history and evolution of speech act theory, from its beginnings to its current state.

The Origins of Speech Act Theory: J.L. Austin

The origins of speech act theory can be traced back to the work of J.L. Austin, a British philosopher of language. In his book, “How to Do Things with Words,” published in 1962, Austin poses the question of whether language is purely descriptive or if it can do things in the world. He argues that words do not merely describe reality, but they can also serve as actions. For example, saying “I promise to be there” is not simply a statement of intent, but it is a performative act that commits the speaker to be present at a specific time.

Austin identified three main types of speech acts: locutionary, illocutionary, and perlocutionary. The locutionary act is the actual utterance of words with their literal meaning. The illocutionary act is the intended and performed meaning of the utterance, while the perlocutionary act is the effect of the utterance on the listener. For Austin, the illocutionary act was the most important as it represented speech as a form of action, rather than just a means of describing reality.

John Searle’s Contributions and the Development of Speech Act Theory

John Searle, an American philosopher, built upon Austin’s work and further developed speech act theory. In his 1969 book “Speech Acts,” Searle argues that language functions as a social institution with rules that govern how speech acts are performed and interpreted. He introduced the concept of “illocutionary force,” which refers to the intended meaning or function of a speech act. Searle also identified five main types of illocutionary acts: representatives, directives, commissives, expressives, and declarations.

Representatives are speech acts that express a belief about the world, such as stating a fact. Directives are speech acts that attempt to get the listener to do something, like issuing a command. Commissives are speech acts that commit the speaker to a future action, such as making a promise. Expressives are speech acts that express the speaker’s feelings or attitudes, like apologizing or congratulating. Declarations, on the other hand, are speech acts that bring about a change in the world, such as declaring someone married or pronouncing someone guilty.

Furthermore, Searle also expanded on the idea of “performativity,” referring to the fact that certain types of speech acts, such as promises or apologies, can only be successfully performed if certain conditions are met. For example, making a promise requires the speaker to have the intention and ability to fulfill that promise.

Practical Examples

To illustrate the application of speech act theory, let’s consider the following examples:

1. A customer at a restaurant says, “I would like the chicken parmesan, please.” Here, the locutionary act is the words being spoken, while the illocutionary act is the request for a chicken parmesan dish. The perlocutionary act is the waiter bringing the dish to the customer.

2. A teacher says to a student, “Can you please pass me the pen?” The locutionary act is the request for the pen, the illocutionary act is the directive, and the perlocutionary act is the student passing the pen to the teacher.

3. A politician declares, “From now on, we will prioritize education in our policies.” The locutionary act is the statement being made, the illocutionary act is the declaration of the future action, and the perlocutionary act is the impact on the audience’s perception of the politician’s agenda.

Conclusion

In conclusion, speech act theory has evolved significantly since its beginnings with Austin. It has become a widely studied field and has applications in various areas, including language teaching, discourse analysis, and artificial intelligence. Searle’s contributions, in particular, have expanded and refined the theory, making it a valuable tool for understanding how language can be used to perform actions and convey meaning beyond its literal definition. As we continue to use speech to interact with others, the study of speech act theory will undoubtedly continue to develop and provide insights into the complexities of human communication.